P-glycoprotein
(Pgp) is an energy-dependent “ counter-transport ” system
which extrudes substrate drugs out of cells, thereby rendering them
resistant to various cytotoxic compounds. Pgp was initially characterized
in tumor cells where it produces multidrug resistance (MDR) phenotype. Pgp
is a 1280 amino acid membrane protein, that is glycosylated and organized
in two domains, each containing six putative transmembrane segments and an
intracellular adenosine triphosphate binding site. Pgp recognizes and
transports a very wide range of drugs with miscellaneous structures and
chemical and pharmacological properties.Examples include Vinca alkaloids,
taxanes, immunosuppresive agents, antimalarial and antifungal agents and
calcium channel blockers [1].
Human
Pgp is also expressed in significant amounts in normal tissues, usually at
the apical surface of secretory epithelial cells. It is found in the small
and large intestines, the biliary canalicular membrane of hepatocytes, as
well as in the endothelial cells of capillaries in the brain (blood brain
barrier) and testes, in the luminal membrane of renal proximal tubules and
in the adrenal gland [2]. The physiological roleof Pgp appears to be to
excrete toxic xenobiotics and metabolites into urine, bile and the
intestinal lumen and to protect the central nervous system. Moreover,
given its specificity for a large range of substrate and its tissular
distribution, Pgp can also cause pharmacokinetic interactions when
substrate drugs are co-administered [3].
In
the intestine, by secreting absorbed drugs Pgp limits the bioavailability
of HIV-1 protease inhibitors, paclitaxel, cyclosporine, some b-adrenergic
antagonists and mzny other orally administered drugs. For example, studies
with digoxin show that its transport across the intestinal mucosa is
enhanced in the presence of quinidine and verapamil in the rat everted gut
sac model [4]. In vivo studies in rat and human show respectively that
ketoconazole and valspodar (a cyclosporine analogue) inhibit intestinal
Pgp and increase the oral biovailability of digoxin [5; 6]. Such
interactions at the intestinal level could be turned to good use to
promote the oral bioavailability of poorly absorbed drugs due to
Pgp-mediated efflux.
Insights
into the role of Pgp in the blood-brain barrier (BBB) have been obtained
by Pgp knock-out mice, which do not expressed the transporter. In these
animals, the intracerebral concentrations of digoxin, vinblastine and
cyclosporine are much higher than those observed in wild-type mice. In the
case of the HIV-1 protease inhibitors amprenavir, indinavir and saquinavir,
the presence of Pgp in the BBB represents a barrier to their brain entry
and prevents them reaching therapeutic concentrations, thereby creating a
potential sanctuary for viral replication [7]. The Pgp substrate
loperamide is a peripherically acting opioid and is used as an
antidiarrheal agent. In Pgp knock-out mice, its brain penetration is
considerably facilitated and typical morphine-like effects can observed.
Consequently, Pgp in the BBB is the major cause of the selective
peripheral effects of loperamide in humans [8]. The co-administration of
Pgp modulators could increase brain delivery of substrate drugs by
competition at the Pgp specific sites. The opposite strategy consists in
employing Pgp inducers to decrease the adverse side-effects on the central
nervous system, of drugs acting in the periphery [9].
In
terms of the renal elimination of drugs, Pgp has again an important role
due to its expression at the luminal membrane of renal proximal tubules.
Renal Pgp overexpression generates a protection against nephrotoxic efects
of cyclosporine due to an enhanced elimination [10]. The major elimination
pathway of digoxin from the body is renal excretion including glomerular
filtration and tubular secretion. The renal Pgp-mediated transport of
digoxin is inhibited in the presence of quinidine and verapamil. Thus,
clinically important drug interactions modifying the renal excretion of
digoxin can be successfully explained by an unique mechanism, that is, by
the inhibition of the Pgp located in the luminal membrane of renal tubular
cells [11; 12].
In
summary, Pgp-mediated transport of xenobiotics appears to be a key element
in drug-drug pharmacokinetic interactions. Pgp modulation can greatly
enhance the bioavailability of otherwise poorly absorbed drugs or modify
their renal or biliary elimination. Thus during the development of nex
drugs, it will be important to evaluate drug-drug interaction on the basis
of wether compounds are substrates or inhibitors of Pgp. In the case of
drugs for oral administration, in vitro models such as Caco-2 monolayer
cells or the rat everted gut sac enable these interactions to be studied
in the early stages of development.
Références / References
[1]
Ambudkar, S., Dey, S., Hrycyna, C., Ramachandra, M., Pastan, I.,
Gottesman, M., Ann. Rev. Pharmacol. Toxicol., (1999) 39, 361.
[2]
Thiebaut, F., Tsuruo, T., Hamada, H., Gottesman, M., Pastan,
I.,Willingham, M., Proc Natl Acad Sci USA, (1987)
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[3]
Lo, A., Burckart, G., J. Clin. Pharmacol., (1999) 39, 995.
[4]
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[5]
Salphati, L. , Benet, L., Pharmacology, (1998) 56, 308.
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Kovarik, J., Rigaudy, L., Guerret, M., Gerbeau, C., Rost, K., Clin.
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Kim, R., Fromm, M., Wandel, C., Leake, B., Wood, A., Roden, D.,
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[8]
Schinkel, A., Int. J. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther., (1998) 36, 9.
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Jolliet-Riant, P., Tillement, J., Fund. Clin. Pharmacol., (1999) 13,
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del Moral, R., Olmo, A., Aguilar, M., O’Valle, F., Exp. Nephrol.,
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Fromm, M., Kim, R., Stein, C., Wilkinson, G., Roden, D.,
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Verschraagen, M., Koks, C., Schellens, J., Beijnen, J., Pharmacol.
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